James Morrow Symbol and Meaning in Northern European Art of the Late Middle

Artistic representation of Mary, either alone or with her kid Jesus

Our Female parent of Perpetual Aid, Icon of the Virgin Mary, 16th century. St. Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai.

The Salus Populi Romani icon, overpainted in the 13th century, just going back to an underlying original dated to the 5th or 6th century.

A Madonna (Italian: [maˈdɔn.na]) is a representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus. These images are central icons for both the Catholic and Orthodox churches.^[1] The discussion is from Italian ma donna 'my lady', admitting primitive. The Madonna and Kid blazon is very prevalent in Christian iconography, divided into many traditional subtypes specially in Eastern Orthodox iconography, often known later the location of a notable icon of the type, such as the Theotokos of Vladimir, Agiosoritissa, Blachernitissa, etc., or descriptive of the depicted posture, equally in Hodegetria, Eleusa, etc.

The term Madonna in the sense of "pic or statue of the Virgin Mary" enters English language usage in the 17th century, primarily in reference to works of the Italian Renaissance. In an Eastern Orthodox context, such images are typically known equally Theotokos. "Madonna" may be generally used of representations of Mary, with or without the infant Jesus, is the focus and cardinal effigy of the image, maybe flanked or surrounded by angels or saints. Other types of Marian imagery have a narrative context, depicting scenes from the Life of the Virgin, e.g. the Annunciation to Mary, are not typically called "Madonna".

The earliest depictions of Mary appointment to Early Christian art of the (2d to third centuries, found in the Catacombs of Rome.^[ii] These are in a narrative context. The classical "Madonna" or "Theotokos" imagery develops from the 5th century, every bit Marian devotion rose to dandy importance afterwards the Quango of Ephesus formally affirmed her status as "Mother of God or Theotokos ("God-bearer") in 431.^[3] The Theotokos iconography as it developed in the sixth to 8th century rose to great importance in the high medieval flow (twelfth to 14th centuries) both in the Eastern Orthodox and in the Latin spheres.

According to a tradition first recorded in the 8th century, and still stiff in the Eastern Church, the iconography of images of Mary goes back to a portrait drawn from life past Luke the Evangelist, with a number of icons (such every bit the Panagia Portaitissa) claimed to either represent this original icon or to be a straight copy of it. In the Western tradition, depictions of the Madonna were profoundly diversified by Renaissance masters such as Duccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, Caravaggio, and Rubens (and farther past certain modernists such as Salvador Dalí and Henry Moore), while Eastern Orthodox iconography adheres more than closely to the inherited traditional types.

Terminology [edit]

Liturgy depicting Mary every bit powerful intercessor (such as the Akathist) was brought from Greek into Latin tradition in the 8th century. The Greek title of Δεσποινα (Despoina) was adopted as Latin Domina "Lady". The medieval Italian Ma Donna pronounced [maˈdɔnna] ("My Lady") reflects Mea Domina, while Nostra Domina (δεσποινίς ἡμῶν) was adopted in French, as Nostre Dame "Our Lady".^[4]

These names point both the increased importance of the cult of the virgin and the prominence of art in service to Marian devotion during the belatedly medieval period. During the 13th century, especially,^{[ citation needed ]} with the increasing influence of knightly and aristocratic culture on verse, vocal and the visual arts, the Madonna is represented as the queen of Heaven, often enthroned. Madonna was meant more to remind people of the theological concept which is placing such a high value on purity or virginity. This is also represented by the color of her wearable. The color blue symbolized purity, virginity, and royalty.^{[ citation needed ]}

While the Italian term Madonna paralleled English Our Lady in tardily medieval Marian devotion, it was imported equally an art historical term into English language usage in the 1640s, designating specifically the Marian art of the Italian Renaissance. In this sense, "a Madonna", or "a Madonna with Child" is used of specific works of art, historically generally of Italian works. A "Madonna" may alternatively be called "Virgin" or "Our Lady", but "Madonna" is not typically applied to eastern works; e.g. the Theotokos of Vladimir may in English language be called "Our Lady of Vladimir", while it is less usual, simply not unheard of, to refer to information technology as the "Madonna of Vladimir".^[v]

Modes of representation [edit]

In that location are several singled-out types of representation of the Madonna.

1 blazon of Madonna shows Mary alone (without the child Jesus), and standing, generally glorified and with a gesture of prayer, benediction or prophesy. This type of image occurs in a number of ancient apsidal mosaics.
Full-length standing images of the Madonna more often include the infant Jesus, who turns towards the viewer or raises his hand in benediction. The most famous Byzantine epitome, the Hodegetria was originally of this type, though most copies are at half-length. This type of image occurs frequently in sculpture and may exist found in fragile ivory carvings, in limestone on the fundamental door posts of many cathedrals, and in polychrome wooden or plaster casts in virtually every Cosmic Church. There are a number of famous paintings that depict the Madonna in this manner, notably the Sistine Madonna by Raphael.
The "Madonna enthroned" is a type of paradigm that dates from the Byzantine catamenia and was used widely in Medieval and Renaissance times. These representations of the Madonna and Child often have the form of large altarpieces. They too occur as frescoes and apsidal mosaics. In Medieval examples the Madonna is often accompanied by angels who back up the throne, or by rows of saints. In Renaissance painting, especially High Renaissance painting, the saints may be grouped informally in a type of composition known as a Sacra conversazione.
The Madonna of humility refers to portrayals in which the Madonna is sitting on the ground, or sitting upon a low cushion. She may be holding the Child Jesus in her lap.^[6] This manner was a product of Franciscan piety,^[seven] ^[8] and perchance due to Simone Martini. Information technology spread speedily through Italia and past 1375 examples began to appear in Spain, French republic and Germany. Information technology was the most pop among the styles of the early on Trecento artistic period.^[9]
Half-length Madonnas are the form most frequently taken by painted icons of the Eastern Orthodox Church, where the subject area thing is highly formulated and so that each painting expresses one particular attribute of the "Mother of God". Half-length paintings of the Madonna and Child are besides common in Italian Renaissance painting, particularly in Venice.
The seated "Madonna and Kid" is a fashion of image that became particularly popular during the 15th century in Florence and was imitated elsewhere. These representations are usually of a small size suitable for a small altar or domestic use. They commonly show Mary holding the infant Jesus in an breezy and maternal manner. These paintings often include symbolic reference to the Passion of Christ.
The "Doting Madonna" is a type popular during the Renaissance. These images, unremarkably small and intended for personal devotion, show Mary kneeling in adoration of the Christ Child. Many such images were produced in glazed terra cotta likewise every bit paint.
The nursing Madonna refers to portrayals of the Madonna breastfeeding the infant Jesus.
The iconography of the Woman of the Apocalypse is applied to marian portraiture in a variety of ways over time, depending on the interpretation of the relevant Biblical passage.^[10]

History [edit]

Painting of the Madonna and Child by an anonymous Italian, first one-half of 19th century

The earliest representation of the Madonna and Child may be the wall painting in the Crypt of Priscilla, Rome, in which the seated Madonna suckles the Child, who turns his head to gaze at the spectator.^[eleven]

The primeval consistent representations of Mother and Child were adult in the Eastern Empire, where despite an iconoclastic strain in culture that rejected physical representations as "idols", respect for venerated images was expressed in the repetition of a narrow range of highly conventionalized types, the repeated images familiar equally icons (Greek "prototype"). On a visit to Constantinople in 536, Pope Agapetus was accused of being opposed to the veneration of the theotokos and to the portrayal of her paradigm in churches.^[12] Eastern examples show the Madonna enthroned, fifty-fifty wearing the closed Byzantine pearl-encrusted crown with pendants, with the Christ Child on her lap.^[xiii]

In the W, hieratic Byzantine models were closely followed in the Early Middle Ages, simply with the increased importance of the cult of the Virgin in the 12th and 13th centuries a wide diversity of types developed to satisfy a flood of more intensely personal forms of piety. In the usual Gothic and Renaissance formulas the Virgin Mary sits with the Baby Jesus on her lap, or enfolded in her arms. In earlier representations the Virgin is enthroned, and the Child may be fully aware, raising his hand to offer approval. In a 15th-century Italian variation, a baby John the Baptist looks on. The socalled Madonna della seggiola shows both of them: the Virgin embraces the infant Jesus, almost John the Baptist.

Belatedly Gothic sculptures of the Virgin and Child may show a continuing virgin with the child in her arms. Iconography varies between public images and private images supplied on a smaller calibration and meant for personal devotion in the chamber: the Virgin suckling the Kid (such every bit the Madonna Litta) is an paradigm largely bars to private devotional icons.

Early on images [edit]

There was a keen expansion of the cult of Mary afterward the Council of Ephesus in 431, when her status as Theotokos ("God-bearer") was confirmed; this had been a subject field of some controversy until and then, though mainly for reasons to practice with arguments over the nature of Christ. In mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432–440, but later on the council, she is not yet shown with a halo, and she is also not shown in Birth scenes at this date, though she is included in the Adoration of the Magi.

Past the side by side century the iconic depiction of the Virgin enthroned carrying the infant Christ was established, as in the case from the merely group of icons surviving from this flow, at Saint Catherine's Monastery in Arab republic of egypt. This type of delineation, with subtly changing differences of emphasis, has remained the mainstay of depictions of Mary to the nowadays mean solar day. The paradigm at Mount Sinai succeeds in combining two aspects of Mary described in the Magnificat, her humility and her exaltation above other humans, and has the Hand of God in a higher place, upwardly to which the archangels look. An early icon of the Virgin as queen is in the church building of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome, datable to 705–707 past the kneeling figure of Pope John Seven, a notable promoter of the cult of the Virgin, to whom the babe Christ reaches his hand. This type was long confined to Rome. The roughly one-half-dozen varied icons of the Virgin and Child in Rome from the 6th–8th century grade the majority of the representations surviving from this period; "isolated images of the Madonna and Child ... are and then common ... to the nowadays twenty-four hours in Catholic and Orthodox tradition, that it is difficult to recover a sense of the novelty of such images in the early Middle Ages, at least in western Europe".^[xiv]

At this period the iconography of the Nascence was taking the class, centred on Mary, that it has retained up to the present day in Eastern Orthodoxy, and on which Western depictions remained based until the High Middle Ages. Other narrative scenes for Byzantine cycles on the Life of the Virgin were existence evolved, relying on apocyphal sources to fill in her life earlier the Annunciation to Mary. Past this fourth dimension the political and economic plummet of the Western Roman Empire meant that the Western, Latin, church was unable to compete in the development of such sophisticated iconography, and relied heavily on Byzantine developments.

The earliest surviving image in a Western illuminated manuscript of the Madonna and Child comes from the Book of Kells of near 800 ^[15] (at that place is a similar carved image on the lid of St Cuthbert's bury of 698) and, though magnificently decorated in the style of Insular fine art, the drawing of the figures tin can just be described as rather crude compared to Byzantine piece of work of the period. This was in fact an unusual inclusion in a Gospel book, and images of the Virgin were slow to appear in large numbers in manuscript art until the volume of hours was devised in the 13th century.

The Madonna of humility by Domenico di Bartolo, 1433, is considered one of the most innovative devotional images from the early Renaissance.^[16]

Byzantine influence on the West [edit]

Very few early images of the Virgin Mary survive, though the depiction of the Madonna has roots in ancient pictorial and sculptural traditions that informed the earliest Christian communities throughout Europe, Northern Africa and the Eye East. Of import to Italian tradition are Byzantine icons, specially those created in Constantinople (Istanbul), the uppercase of the longest, enduring medieval civilization whose icons participated in borough life and were celebrated for their miraculous properties. Byzantium (324–1453) saw itself as the true Rome, if Greek-speaking, Christian empire with colonies of Italians living among its citizens, participating in Crusades at the borders of its state, and ultimately, plundering its churches, palaces and monasteries of many of its treasures. Later in the Middle Ages, the Cretan school was the main source of icons for the West, and the artists there could adapt their manner to Western iconography when required.

While theft is one way that Byzantine images fabricated their way West to Italy, the relationship between Byzantine icons and Italian images of the Madonna is far more rich and complicated. Byzantine fine art played a long, critical function in Western Europe, particularly when Byzantine territories included parts of Eastern Europe, Greece and much of Italy itself. Byzantine manuscripts, ivories, aureate, silver and luxurious textiles were distributed throughout the W. In Byzantium, Mary'due south usual title was the Theotokos or Mother of God, rather than the Virgin Mary and it was believed that salvation was delivered to the true-blue at the moment of God'due south incarnation. That theological concept takes pictorial course in the image of Mary holding her infant son.

Nonetheless, what is about relevant to the Byzantine heritage of the Madonna is twofold. First, the earliest surviving contained images of the Virgin Mary are plant in Rome, the centre of Christianity in the medieval W. One is a valued possession of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the many Roman churches defended to the Virgin Mary. Some other, a splintered, repainted ghost of its one-time self, is venerated at the Pantheon, that great architectural wonder of the Aboriginal Roman Empire, that was rededicated to Mary equally an expression of the Church's triumph. Both evoke Byzantine tradition in terms of their medium, that is, the technique and materials of the paintings, in that they were originally painted in tempera (egg yolk and ground pigments) on wooden panels. In this respect, they share the Ancient Roman heritage of Byzantine icons. 2nd, they share iconography, or subject affair. Each image stresses the maternal role that Mary plays, representing her in relationship to her infant son. It is difficult to guess the dates of the cluster of these before images, however, they seem to be primarily works of the 7th and 8th centuries.

Subsequently medieval period [edit]

It was non until the revival of monumental panel painting in Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, that the epitome of the Madonna gains prominence exterior of Rome, peculiarly throughout Tuscany. While members of the mendicant orders of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders are some of the first to commission panels representing this subject field matter, such works quickly became popular in monasteries, parish churches, and homes. Some images of the Madonna were paid for by lay organizations called confraternities, who met to sing praises of the Virgin in chapels found within the newly reconstructed, spacious churches that were sometimes dedicated to her. Paying for such a work might too be seen as a class of devotion. Its expense registers in the employ of sparse sheets of real gilt leaf in all parts of the panel that are not covered with paint, a visual analogue not only to the costly sheaths that medieval goldsmiths used to decorate altars, simply also a means of surrounding the image of the Madonna with illumination from oil lamps and candles. Even more precious is the bright blueish curtain colored with lapis lazuli, a rock imported from Afghanistan.

This is the instance of one of the most famous, innovative and monumental works that Duccio executed for the Laudesi at Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Oftentimes the scale of the work indicates a great deal nearly its original function. Frequently referred to every bit the Rucellia Madonna (c. 1285), the panel painting towers over the spectator, offering a visual focus for members of the Laudesi confraternity to gather earlier it every bit they sang praises to the paradigm. Duccio made an even grander paradigm of the Madonna enthroned for the high chantry of the cathedral of Siena, his home town. Known as the Maesta (1308–1311), the image represents the pair equally the eye of a densely populated court in the cardinal role of a complexly carpentered piece of work that lifts the court upon a predella (pedestal of altarpiece) of narrative scenes and standing figures of prophets and saints. In turn, a modestly scaled prototype of the Madonna every bit a one-half-length figure holding her son in a memorably intimate delineation, is to be found in the National Gallery of London. This is clearly made for the individual devotion of a Christian wealthy enough to hire ane of the virtually important Italian artists of his solar day.

The privileged possessor need not go to Church to say his prayers or plead for salvation; all he or she had to do was open up the shutters of the tabernacle in an act of individual revelation. Duccio and his contemporaries inherited early pictorial conventions that were maintained, in office, to tie their own works to the authorization of tradition.

Despite all of the innovations of painters of the Madonna during the 13th and 14th centuries, Mary tin usually be recognized by virtue of her attire. Customarily when she is represented as a youthful mother of her newborn child, she wears a deeply saturated blue mantle over a red garment. This mantle typically covers her head, where sometimes, one might see a linen, or later, transparent silk veil. She holds the Christ Child, or Baby Jesus, who shares her halo every bit well every bit her purple bearing. Frequently her gaze is directed out at the viewer, serving equally an intercessor, or conduit for prayers that flow from the Christian, to her, and but then, to her son. However, late medieval Italian artists also followed the trends of Byzantine icon painting, developing their ain methods of depicting the Madonna. Sometimes, the Madonna's complex bond with her tiny kid takes the form of a close, intimate moment of tenderness steeped in sorrow where she only has eyes for him.

While the focus of this entry currently stresses the depiction of the Madonna in panel painting, her epitome likewise appears in landscape decoration, whether mosaics or fresco painting on the exteriors and interior of sacred buildings. She is constitute loftier above the apse, or east end of the church where the liturgy is celebrated in the West. She is also found in sculpted form, whether minor ivories for private devotion, or large sculptural reliefs and free-continuing sculpture. Equally a participant in sacred drama, her image inspires one of the most important fresco cycles in all of Italian painting: Giotto's narrative bicycle in the Arena Chapel, next to the Scrovegni family unit's palace in Padua. This program dates to the kickoff decade of the 14th century.

Italian artists of the 15th century onward are indebted to traditions established in the 13th and 14th centuries in their representation of the Madonna.

Renaissance [edit]

While the 15th and 16th centuries were a time when Italian painters expanded their repertoire to include historical events, independent portraits and mythological subject matter, Christianity retained a strong agree on their careers. Most works of art from this era are sacred. While the range of religious field of study matter included subjects from the Quondam Testament and images of saints whose cults date after the codified of the Bible, the Madonna remained a dominant subject area in the iconography of the Renaissance.

Some of the well-nigh eminent 16th-century Italian painters to turn to this subject were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael,^{[note 1]} Giorgione, Giovanni Bellini and Titian. They developed on the foundations of 15th-century Marian images by Fra Angelico, Fra Filippo Lippi, Mantegna and Piero della Francesca in particular, among countless others. The subject was equally popular in Early Netherlandish painting and that of the residual of Northern Europe.

The subject retaining the greatest power on all of these men remained the maternal bond, even though other subjects, especially the Announcement, and later the Immaculate Formulation, led to a greater number of paintings that represented Mary alone, without her son. As a commemorative image, the Pietà became an of import subject, newly freed from its former office in narrative cycles, in function, an outgrowth of popular devotional statues in Northern Europe. Traditionally, Mary is depicted expressing compassion, grief and beloved, usually in highly charged, emotional works of fine art even though the most famous, early on piece of work by Michelangelo stifles signs of mourning. The tenderness an ordinary mother might experience towards her beloved kid is captured, evoking the moment when she first held her infant son Christ. The spectator, later on all, is meant to sympathise, to share in the despair of the mother who holds the trunk of her crucified son.

Modern images [edit]

In some European countries, such as Federal republic of germany, Italy and Poland sculptures of the Madonna are establish on the outside of city houses and buildings, or along the roads in small enclosures.

In Germany, such a statue placed on the outside of a building is called a Hausmadonna. Some date back to the Middle Ages, while some are still being made today. Usually found on the level of the second flooring or higher, and often on the corner of a house, such sculptures were constitute in great numbers in many cities; Mainz, for instance, was supposed to have had more than 200 of them earlier World War Two.^[xix] The diversity in such statues is as great as in other Madonna images; one finds Madonnas property grapes (in reference to the Song of Songs one:xiv, translated as "My lover is to me a cluster of henna blossoms" in the NIV), "immaculate" Madonnas in pure, perfect white without kid or accessories, and Madonnas with roses symbolizing her life adamant past the mysteries of faith.^[twenty]

In Italia, the roadside Madonna is a common sight both on the side of buildings and along roads in modest enclosures. These are expected to bring spiritual relief to people who pass them.^[21] Some Madonnas statues are placed around Italian towns and villages as a matter of protection, or as a celebration of a reported miracle.^[22]

In the 1920s, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed statues called the Madonna of the Trail from coast to declension, marking the path of the quondam National Route and the Santa Fe Trail.^[23]

Throughout his life, the painter Ray Martìn Abeyta created works inspired by the Cusco School style of Madonna painting, creating a hybrid of traditional and gimmicky Latino subject matter representing the colonialist encounters between Europeans and Mesoamericans.^[24] ^[25]

In 2015 iconographer Mark Dukes created the icon Our Lady of Ferguson, depicting the Madonna and child, in relation to the Shooting of Michael Brownish in Ferguson, Missouri.^[26]

Islamic view [edit]

The offset important encounter between Islam and the image of the Madonna is said to take happened during the Prophet Muhammad's conquest of Mecca. At the culmination of his mission, in 629 CE, Muhammad conquered Mecca with a Muslim army, with his showtime action existence the "cleansing" or "purifying" of the Kaaba, wherein he removed all the pre-Islamic pagan images and idols from within the temple. Co-ordinate to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad did, however, protectively put his hand over a painting of Mary and Jesus, and a fresco of Abraham in order to keep them from being effaced.^[27] ^[28] In the words of the historian Barnaby Rogerson, "Muhammad raised his manus to protect an icon of the Virgin and Child and a painting of Abraham, just otherwise his companions cleared the interior of its ataxia of votive treasures, cult implements, statuettes and hanging charms."^[29]

The Islamic scholar Martin Lings narrated the event thus in his biography of the Prophet: "Christians sometimes came to do honour to the Sanctuary of Abraham, and they were made welcome like all the rest. Moreover one Christian had been allowed and even encouraged to pigment an icon of the Virgin Mary and the child Christ on an inside wall of the Ka'bah, where information technology sharply contrasted with all the other paintings. Only Quraysh were more or less insensitive to this contrast: for them it was simply a question of increasing the multitude of idols by some other two; and it was partly their tolerance that made them so impenetrable.... Apart from the icon of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus, and a painting of an old man, said to be Abraham, the walls inside had been covered with pictures of pagan deities. Placing his hand protectively over the icon, the Prophet told Uthman to encounter that all the other paintings, except that of Abraham, were effaced."^[30]

Notable types and private works [edit]

There are a large number of articles on private works of various sorts in Category:Virgin Mary in fine art and its sub-category. Encounter also the incomplete List of depictions of the Virgin and Child. The term "Madonna" is often applied to representations of Mary that were not created by Italians. A small selection of examples include:

Golden Madonna of Essen, the earliest large-scale sculptural example in Western Europe and a precedent for the polychrome wooden processional sculptures of Romanesque French republic, a type known as Throne of Wisdom.
Madonna of humility depicting a Madonna sitting on the ground, or low cushions
Madonna and Child, a painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, from around the yr 1300.
The Blackness Madonna of Częstochowa (Czarna Madonna or Matka Boska Częstochowska in Smooth) icon, which was, according to legend, painted past St. Luke the Evangelist on a cypress table top from the business firm of the Holy Family.
Madonna and Child with Flowers, mayhap one of two works begun by Leonardo da Vinci.
Madonna Eleusa (of tenderness) has been depicted both in the Eastern and Western churches.
Madonna of the Steps, a relief past Michelangelo.
Madonna della seggiola, past Raphael
Madonna with the Long Neck, past Parmigianino.
The Madonna of Port Lligat, the name of two paintings by Salvador Dalí created in 1949 and 1950.

Paintings [edit]

Madonna in Art
Madonna in Mandorla, Wolfgang Sauber, twelfth century
Madonna and Angels, Duccio, 1282
Our Mother of Perpetual Help, probably an early on Cretan work, 13th or 14th century. A very popular Catholic image, which was certainly in Rome past 1499.
Mary and the kid depicted as a hodegetria. Tesselated icon in monumental mode, early 13th century. Saint Catherine'due south Monastery in the Sinai, Egypt
Madonna in the rose-garden, by Stefan Lochner 1448

Statues [edit]

Egyptian ivory carving, 1 of the earliest examples of what in later Byzantine times was chosen Eleousa, or "Virgin of Tenderness". 7th century.
A roadside Madonna in Ocieka, Poland.
A roadside Madonna alcove in Friuli, Italy.

Manuscripts and covers [edit]

Notes [edit]

^ Co-ordinate to West. H. Wackenroder, some writings by Bramante reveal that Raphael told him that he discovered how to paint his Madonnas in a visionary dream he had later on praying to the Virgin.^[18]

References [edit]

^ Doniger, Wendy, Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of globe religions, 1999, ISBN 0-87779-044-2 p. 696.
^ Mary in Western Fine art by Timothy Verdon, Filippo Rossi 2005 ISBN 0-9712981-9-10 p. eleven
^ Burke, Raymond, Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons 2008 ISBN 1-57918-355-7^{[ page needed ]}
^ Johannes Schneider, Virgo Ecclesia Facta, 2004, p. 74. Michael O'Carroll, Theotokos: A Theological Encyclopedia of the Blest Virgin Mary, 2000, p. 127.
^ "Madonna of Vladimir" e.grand. in Hans Belting, Edmund Jephcott; Edmund Jephcott (trans.) Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Fine art, University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 289.
^ Renaissance fine art: a topical lexicon by Irene Earls 1987 ISBN 0-313-24658-0 p. 174
^ A history of ideas and images in Italian art by James Hall 1983 ISBN 0-06-433317-five p. 223
^ Iconography of Christian Art by Gertrud Schiller, 1971 ASIN B0023VMZMA p. 112
^ Painting in Florence and Siena later on the Black Death by Millard Meiss 1979 ISBN 0-691-00312-ii pp. 132–133
^ Roten, Johann. "Crescent Moon: Meaning : University of Dayton, Ohio". udayton.edu.
^ Victor Lasareff, "Studies in the Iconography of the Virgin" The Art Bulletin 20.1 (March 1938, pp. 26–65 [pp. 27f]).
^ m. Mundell, "Monophysite church building decoration" Iconoclasm (Birmingham) 1977, p. 72.
^ As in the fresco fragments of the lower Basilica di San Clemente, Rome: run across John 50. Osborne, "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche" Gesta xx.2 (1981), pp. 299–310.
^ Nees, Lawrence. Early medieval fine art, 143–145, quote 144, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-284243-nine, ISBN 978-0-19-284243-v
^ Werner, Martin (1972). "The Madonna and Child Miniature in the Book of Kells: Part I". The Art Bulletin. 54 (1): ane–23. doi:10.2307/3048928. JSTOR 3048928.
^ Art and music in the early modern catamenia past Franca Trinchieri Camiz, Katherine A. McIver ISBN 0-7546-0689-9 p. xv [1]
^ National Gallery of Fine art, Washington D.C.
^ Salmi, Mario; Becherucci, Luisa; Marabottini, Alessandro; Tempesti, Anna Forlani; Marchini, Giuseppe; Becatti, Giovanni; Castagnoli, Ferdinando; Golzio, Vincenzo (1969). The Consummate Work of Raphael. New York: Reynal and Co., William Morrow and Company. p. 622.
^ Wöhrlin, Annette; Luzie Bratner; Marlene Höbel; Hiltraud Laubach; Anne-Madeleine Plum (2008). Mainzer Hausmadonnen. Ingelheim: Leinpfad. ISBN978-3-937782-seventy-6.
^ Anne-Madeleine Plum, "Kreuzzepter-Madonna--Zypertraube ind fruchtbringende Rede" and "Maria, Geheimnisvolle Rose", in Wöhrlin, Mainzer Hausmadonnen, pp. 49–54, 55–57.
^ Thomas Vocaliser, 2004 The cultural complex ISBN 1-58391-913-ix p. 68
^ Mark Pearson, 2006 Italy from a Backpack ISBN 0-9743552-4-0 p. 219
^ Madonna of the Trail
^ Williams, Stephen P. (August 5, 2007). "The Art Is Striking, and So Are the Cars". The New York Times . Retrieved 9 Apr 2019.
^ Roberts, Kathaleen (June 29, 2014). "NM History Museum unveils rare colonial paintings of Mary". Albuquerque Periodical . Retrieved ix Apr 2019.
^ http://nebraskaepiscopalian.org/?cat=32&paged=2
^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford Academy Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0196360331 . Retrieved 2011-12-08 . Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including ii of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom exist peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
^ Ellenbogen, Josh; Tugendhaft, Aaron (2011). Idol Anxiety. Stanford University Press. p. 47. ISBN978-0804781817. When Muhammad ordered his men to cleanse the Kaaba of the statues and pictures displayed there, he spared the paintings of the Virgin and Child and of Abraham.
^ Rogerson, Barnaby (2003). The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography. Paulist Press. p. 190. ISBN978-1587680298.
^ Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Source (Rochester: Inner Traditions, 1987), pp. 17, 300.

External links [edit]

Metropolitan Museum: The Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages

The Madonna in Art at Project Gutenberg by Estelle Thousand. Hurll (Starting time printed 1897)

fortenberryglactiond.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_%28art%29